Exploring American Culture´s Dark Spot Essay - 582 Words

Exploring American cultures dark spot Educational expectations may create academic dishonesty incentive Jay Z, Jay Gatsby, and Al Capone all reside in the same weak place in the hearts of Americans. These three men represent our nation’s twisted admiration for masterful cheaters. Americans are intrigued by these men, seduced by their risk-taking and their subsequent success and fame. The majority of society is not made up of criminals, gamblers, or drug-dealers. But cheating is prominent on a smaller scale, in more realistic acts. Recently, educational cheating scandals seem to be gripping the nation, or at least the media. One explanation for recently publicized academic dishonesty is that students feel†¦show more content†¦200 educators from 40 schools were involved in a cheating scandal in Atlanta. At one school, educators had weekend pizza parties to correct wrong answers on test documents together. As a result, the schools scores increased 45 percent. We were told to get these scores by any means nec essary. We were told our jobs were on the line, said Sidnye Fells, a fourth grade teacher in Atlanta to ABC news. In 2004, educators encouraged 500 high school students in Alabama to drop out before the test to increase the school’s score. Some public school activists attribute teachers’ cheating scandals to the high expectations of standardized tests. Across the country, educators and parents have participated in protests against heavy reliance on standardized test scores in deciding a teacher or school’s success. Standardized tests provide administrators and state government with an objective evaluation of students’ knowledge. Ohio will implement the new teacher evaluation system in the 2014-2015 school year. Teacher performance ratings will comprise 50 percent of the evaluation. The remaining 50 percent relies on improvements in student test scores. Teachers will receive one of four possible grades: accomplished, skilled, developing, and ineffective. Each district’s board of education must decide how teacher’s evaluations will be used to determine promotions and terminations. â€Å"Quote from Sycamore Teacher aboutShow MoreRelatedHistorical Places Of Ghost And Dark Tourism1822 Words   |  8 Pagesmeaning of history and culture of historical places. Many cities and towns around the world profit when visitors go to haunted sites where ghosts and supernatural activity have been present. Tourists and tourism companies have different motives for exploring and hosting tours of historical landmarks. Some companies take the economic route and strictly attempt to make capital gain, while other s take the time to thoroughly explain and connect with the tourist about the culture and history of the hauntedRead MoreThe Bears Of British Columbia1497 Words   |  6 Pagesthe Grizzly Bear include a concave snout, extremely long claws, and poor eyesight. Though dark brown is the most commonly viewed fur color, the Grizzly can be any shade from ivory to nearly black. The Kermode Bear, also known as the Ghost Bear or Spirit Bear, is a cultural symbol for the British Columbia Province. This white bear, is actually a black bear that carries a recessive gene. Both of the Kermode Bear s parents must carry the gene for their offspring to have the white fur. At times, the KermodeRead More Achebe’s Inability to Understand Conrad’s Heart of Darkness Essay3028 Words   |  13 Pagesmocked by triumphant bestiality (Achebe 1785). 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Contents  Ã‚  [hide]   * 1  Cultural influences * 2  Relevancy * 3  Legendary creatures * 4  ReferencesRead MoreOn James Weldon Johnson’s â€Å"The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man†2065 Words   |  9 Pages(149). She in turn answered in kind, letting the notes and tempo combine with her words in expression of her love returned to him. The relevance of music in Johnson’s novel should not be undercut by the other issues within the confines of his text. Exploring the meaning of this inclusion will be to explore the theme of music itself. It will encompass the examination of the style of music, the generation in which the story takes place along with the issues of race. Johnson’s use of music to develop aRead MoreLiterature And Information Resources For Children And Young People3290 Words   |  14 Pageshttp://literatureandresourcesforyoungpeople.blogspot.com.au/ 2: Fiction Review Babies and toddlers, early childhood (0–6 years) Morris Disappearing Bag - A Christmas Story Wells, R. (1980). 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I will be exploring four different areas related to this topic in order to understand why these countries experience an abundance of transnational crime; how it has become available through globalization, whereby the world has become an increasingly smaller place; factorsRead MoreKhasak14018 Words   |  57 Pagessets the ground for the analysis by exploring the scope of the novel in the comparative study of literature. It also asserts the author’s place in the regional and Indian English canons of literature and establishes his creative genius wit h reference to the work considered. The second chapter, titled The Dark Vault, studies the aspects of psychoanalytic theory which can be used in the analysis of the novel. It deals mainly with Freudian theories which explore the dark vaults of the psyche of the charactersRead MoreEssay MKT 505 ASSIGNMENT 34730 Words   |  19 Pagesavailability of power, labor availability and cost, laws, work culture and customers preference, and proximity to resources and/or markets. On balance, after a careful analyzes of the political and cultural environment of India as well as the various types of legal systems Eco-Pave is sure that joint-venture is the best mode of entry choice. Exhibit 1 Exhibit 2 India Economic Outlook Dark green: Important economic data. Dark yellow: Important data related to our business. Created from:

Is Andy Warhol a Genius of Art and Culture - 793 Words

This research paper studies the graft and career of Andy Warhol and presents the question of whether Warhol should be regarded--as a genius of art or a culture thief. Many credit Andy Warhol with revolutionizing and influencing 20th Century art and culture. However, Although Warhol had a successful and rewarding life; His childhood was nothing less than average. His life was a struggle: As young lad he contracted rheumatic fever and as a result he suffered from neurological problems. His was born of Czechoslovakian immigrants who relocated to Pittsburgh before his birth on August 6, 1928. Like many other artists, Warhol before his time, Warhol had an interest in art from a tender age. Warhol’s mother had an enormous influence on his art. She stimulated his artistic nature by encouraging him to paint: She would often buy him candy as a reward for painting. He was orphaned at young age as his father died and he was left in the care of his elder brother while his mother worked. W arhol was known to satirically talk about his young hood. He often expressed how he missed his childhood when his brother would make him a sandwich and Campbell’s soup for lunch. This later became the focus of one of his painting cycles. Warhol talked about how his mother, Julia often took him to free Saturday afternoon art classes at a local museum. Warhol would stay late and wonder the museum observing the displayed paintings. His father set aside the funds for Warhol to go to college and in theShow MoreRelatedChanging Role of the Artist from Different Times1695 Words   |  7 PagesArt is contemporarily defined as the product or process of deliberately arranging symbolic elements in a way that influences and affects the senses, emotions, and/or intellect. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression. The renaissance is the rebirth of classicism; classicism comes from the ancient Greece and Rome; they portray art to captivate perfection, harmony and order. Italian High Renaissance artists achieved ideal of harmony and balance comparableRead MoreWarhol And The Pop Art Movement2609 Words   |  11 PagesAndy Warhol being not simply a Pop artist, but an American artist who was known as the master of Pop Art, and about two of Warhol’s most famous paintings; Coca-Cola and Campbell’s Soup Cans. Andy Warhol was an artist and filmmaker, an initiator for the Pop Art movement in the 1960s. Warhol used mass production techniques to elevate art into the supposed unoriginality of the commercial culture of the United States. 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Artist: Andy Warhol Title: Mao Tse-Tung No. 91, 1972 Size: 36† x 36† Read MoreVan Gogh And Warhol : Post Impressionism And Pop Art2267 Words   |  10 PagesPaola Chacon Emil Bakalli HUA 101 December 9, 2014 Final Van Gogh and Andy Warhol Post-Impressionism and Pop Art There have been different art forms that have come and go over the course of time. Hence I will discuss, two significant movements like Post-impressionism and Pop art. Two important artists from these movements are, Vincent Van Gogh and Andy Warhol. There are many differences and very few similarities between these two movements and artists, although more differences. Van Gogh is one ofRead More Art in the Movie Basquiat Essay2003 Words   |  9 PagesArt in the Movie Basquiat Walter Benjamin projected the future of art in the age of mechanical reproduction, providing the basis of aesthetic evaluation for photography, film, digital and reproducible art. In the film Basquiat, directed by Julian Schnabel and starring Jeffrey Wright, Gary Oldman, Dennis Hopper, and David Bowie as Andy Warhol, the art world is explored in the midst of defining itself in light of the changes brought about by the technology of the twentieth century. BenjaminRead MoreStone Soup an Essay Written by Barbara Kingsolver1753 Words   |  8 Pagesmoment was in 1962, when the world stood audience to the genius of Andy Warhol and his synthetic polymer paint on canvas: â€Å"Campbell’s Soup Cans†. In structure, this work was by no means eccentric: thirty-two canvases, each 20 by 16 inches, each representing one variety of Campbell’s Soup revolutionized the pop art culture in America. The painting was of an image that almost every American knew and Warhol almost magically turned it into art. He was once quoted as saying â€Å" a group of painters haveRead MoreDefining the Humanities Essay1179 Words   |  5 Pageswhat I know about the humanities, art, style, genius, and culture from the 60s. I will also discuss how the music of the 60s compares with other forms I know about from the same period. One of the definitions of humanities, according to the American Heritage Dictionary, is â€Å"Those branches of knowledge, such as philosophy, literature, and art, that are concerned with human thought and culture; the liberal arts.† Culture is a big part of humanities. Culture, as defined by the American HeritageRead MoreThe Emergence Of Cinematic Time1869 Words   |  8 Pagesimage but of a fundamental understanding of our existence in the contemporary world. Though that may seem a tad melodramatic, I challenge you to come up with one aspect of your life and your art that is not affected by your temporal experience. It is difficult to conceive of one aspect of our lives and our art that is not affected by temporal experience. Aside from being late for an appointment, the effect of time is most prevalent when viewing other’s moving images. Doane argues that the creation

Creating a Business Idea free essay sample

Idea Recently the United States government has released funds for creating small businesses. An opportunity to acquire government funding for a business venture is one to take advantage of and to put dreams into reality. The intent of this paper is to outline the three main forms of business organizations including the tax and legal implications as well as the accounting requirements for each structure. In addition, this paper proposes creating a small business of a women’s only gym while weighing in the advantages and disadvantages of the three types of business organizations which are sole proprietorship, partnership, and corporation. To start the process of forming a business there are three main forms of business organizations that a potential small business owner must choose from. Three of the main business organizations used in the market place today includes sole proprietorship, partnership, and corporation. Deciding on a business structure appropriate for a new business will have long-term impacts and it is crucial to weigh all the choices. The following must be considered: the desired level of control, tax implications, risk of lawsuits, and the level of personal liability (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). Reviewing available options and selecting an appropriate form of business organization is the first step to creating a successful company. Before determining the preferred type of organization for the women’s gym, here is an outline of the key attributes of each form. A sole proprietorship is a business owned by one person (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). An advantage of sole proprietorship is it is simple to establish and gives the owner control over the business (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). This is always a great advantage for someone who wants to open a business because it gives them leeway to run their business however they choose. In addition to advantages, a sole proprietorship does have its disadvantages. A sole proprietor is personally liable for debts of the business (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). In other words, the owner is risking his or her personal assets to liquidation if the business is not successful. A partnership is owned by two or more individuals and has shared control over the business (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). This is a great advantage because partners can bring their own unique skills and resources into the business. The partners should formalize their duties and contributions in a written partnership agreement (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). This agreement states who does what in the business and also how much money each of the partners put into the new business. It is sometimes common for one partner to put in more money than the other as well. Like a sole proprietorship, all partners are personally liable for debts of the business (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). If the business is not successful then the partners are liable for the money or assets they put into the partnership agreement. A corporation is much different than a sole proprietorship and partnership. A corporation is a business organized as a separate legal entity owned by stockholders (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). An investor in a corporation would receive shares of stock to indicate ownership in the company (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). This means that the investors are stockholders in the corporation and own part of the company. An advantage of a corporation business organization is that buying stock is often more attractive than investing in a partnership because shares of stock are easy to sell or easy to transfer ownership (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). Therefore, it is easier for corporations to raise funds and become more successful in the end (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). A corporation has no personal liability but it does have some disadvantages when it comes to taxes and legal implications. It is important for a small business, no matter what the business organization, to communicate with its internal and external users. Creditors, investors, and management need to know what the business owes and owns and looks at the business’ four different financial statements which are the balance sheet, income statement, retained earnings statement, and statement of cash flows. These four financial statements are considered the backbone of financial accounting and show special significance, but ultimately, each has one common goal: to show internal and external users where the money is in the company. No matter what form of business organization the small business is they all need to prepare these four financial statements. The income statement deals with the revenues and expenses a company incurs for a period of time (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). This financial statement reports the success or failure of the company’s operating and non-operating activities. The retained earnings statement shows the amounts and causes of changes in retained earnings during the period (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). This statement brings together the beginning and ending retained earnings for the period, using information such as net income from the company’s other financial statements. A company’s balance sheet reports assets and claims to assets at a specific point in time (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). In other words, the balance sheet summarizes a company’s assets, liabilities, and stockholder’s equity. These three segments give investors, creditors, and managers an idea as to what the company owns and owes, as well as the amount invested by the shareholders. The balance sheet must, and always, follow the following formula: Assets = Liabilities + Stockholder’s Equity (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). The fourth and final financial statement is the statement of cash flows. This is used to provide financial information about the cash receipts and cash payments of a business for a specific period of time (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). Cash flow is determined by looking at three components by which cash enters and leaves a company through their operating, investing, and financing activities. No matter what type of business organization or how big or small the business is it needs to have all four of these financial statements prepared for investors, creditors, and management. The following consequences associated with each form of business organization are tax and legal implications and accounting implications such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) and the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB). These factors need to be greatly considered when deciding which organizational form to choose. If someone chooses sole proprietorship or partnership, they generally receive more favorable tax treatment than a corporation (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). However, repeated again proprietors and partners are personally liable for all debts of the business; corporate stockholders are not (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). It is important and ethical that every business is honest in their financial statements to investors, creditors, and their stakeholders. In 2002 Congress passes the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) to reduce unethical corporate behavior and decrease the likelihood of future corporate scandals (Kimmel, Weygandt, Kieso, 2009). This act prevents businesses from embellishing on what they own or owe on their financial statements and to give investors more confidence in corporate accounting. In 1973, FASB was established to create and improve standards of financial accounting and reporting that foster financial reporting by nongovernmental entities that provides decision-useful information to investors and other users of financial reports (Financial Accounting Standards Board, 2012). To accomplish the mission, the application of comprehensive and independent processes encourages broad participation, objectively deem to all stakeholders’ views, and focus on the oversight by the Financial Accounting Foundation’s Board of Trustees (Financial Accounting Standards Board, 2012). These standards are very important to the efficient functioning of the economy and internationally. Having more and more businesses be international only intensifies the importance of SOX and FASB to have international comparability with all financial statements. The hypothetical small business will be a women’s only gym. This gym will be a safe haven for all women who are self conscious or just feel more comfortable exercising in a gym where there are no men around. In this women only gym, they would be more likely to give and receive open advice on their health condition and their workout plan. With women trainers, females could likely get better advice as well as have options for activities that may not be available in co-ed gyms. The overall goal of this women only gym is to allow females to exercise in a safe and non stereotypical environment to help them have healthy lives. The choice of business organization form for this gym is a partnership. The reason for this is to allow two or more people, women of course, to be involved in this business adventure and put forth their own unique skills and resources. There is no need for this company to be a corporation because it is meant to be operated in a small town and the partners of this women only gym will have enough money to start it up without stockholders. Many future business owners jump into decisions without proper deliberation and research. If you do not consider the benefits and liabilities of each business form it can be costly. There are many risks and factors in starting a business but if the owner knows the capital requirements of the business, government restrictions, and personal liability then they will most likely choose the right business form to help their business expand and be successful in the future.

Information Technology in the Tourism-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the use of Information Technology in the Tourism and Hospitality Industries. Answer: Introduction It is mandatory for tourism and hospitality industries to adopt new technologies to compete favorably with business rivals. The companies must design new distribution models to cope up with environmental changes. A sustainable information management system should ensure coordination of Information Technology, processes and managing information. Reports have it that in tourism and hospitality industries, information technology applies in three ways; guest services, management information and operational areas (Benckendorf, 2014). Application of Information Technology has given rise to new services including; interactive video texts and online brochures. The major impact of technology in the tourism and hospitality industries is in the distribution and marketing sectors. However, less attention is paid to areas that are human-intensive such as supplier-consumer and guest-host relationships. The main types of technologies applied in the tourism and hospitality industries include; mobile communication, the internet, computer and reservation systems. With advancement in technology, the tourism and hospitality companies can communicate with travelers through devices such as mobile phones and tablets. Different companies may opt for different forms of communications for example email, GPS tagging or text messages. According to Zeng (2014), through the internet, travelers are able to have a reconnaissance by visiting the companies websites where photos of location are availed which gives them of a clue of their plan destination. Computer systems are used by tourism and hospitality companies to connect their branches and allow easier communication between staff and customers. Through computer systems, the company can gather information about guest preferences and experience. The reservation systems which are mainly booking engines enable the travelers to make a price comparison and also reservations. Some of the available booking engines within the industry that are online include the Expedia and Orbitz. Neuhofer (2014) eludes that through booking engines, tourism and hospitality companies incur low costs by regulating their purchasing processes and call volume. A significant transformation in the tourism and travel industries is evident with improvement in information technology which incorporates sustainable offline and online services. Through Information Technology, some travel companies use e-commerce websites to help travelers in accessing information about the available reservation systems. According to Law (2014), the clients can choose their travel destination since the information available is of high quality and diversity. Mobile technologies have also been applied in the travel industries for access and booking of various options in travel is made easier for the clients using their mobile devices like tablets. In a nutshell, the synergy between the travel industry and information technology is necessary since the specific travel destination of a client is achieved and also travel services solution. Leung (2013) denotes that the purchase decision of customers intending to buy tourism commodities is determined by the nature of the companys website. To gain customers preference, the website must be easier to access. A successful website can be developed by first having a clear understanding of various perceptions by the customers. A comparison study showed that international tourists are more sophisticated than domestic tourists in their choice on what products to purchase (Xiang, 2015). The customers perception is based on; house-keeping, room-size, and front-desk services. A similar study showed that customers from China were more likely to rely on electronic word-of-mouth rather than hotel branding in online reservations. Modern advancements in Information Technology have made the internet preferable for tourists to research and plan for their travel. Take for instance the IPK which is an internet travel monitor based in Europe. A survey conducted on this monitor system showed those two years after its development, 26 percent of people had started using it. However, 74 percent of the population did not access the internet monitor system. According to Xiang (2015), the major internet travel sites are; E-booking and E-travel by destination. A survey showed that Germany registered the highest number of internet travel-bookings. France and Spain are the leading countries in E-travel concerning market share. On the other hand, USA leads in E-travel concerning destinations. Zeng (2014) asserts that online information search ranking is influenced by the foll owing factors; demographic, contextual and psychological. It is also crucial to consider the type of source information available for the tourist. The extent of available information is also a factor to consider. Conclusion In this paper, the efficacy of Information Technology in the tourism and hospitality industries is evident. Websites designed by companies help in marketing themselves. It is important for managers to consider issues relating to Information Technology and incorporate Information Technology in line with the achievement of set goals and overall mission of the business. References Benckendorff, P. J., Sheldon. P.J.,Tesenmaier D.R. (2014) Tourism informationtechnology.Cabi. Law.R., Buhalis, D., Cobanoglu, C. (2014).Progress of information and communication technologies in hospitality and tourism.International journals of Contemporary HospitalityManagement. Leung, D., Law. R., Van Hoof. H.,Buhalis. D. (2013). Social media in tourism and hospitality: A literature review. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing. Neuhofer, B., Buhalis. B., Ladkin, A. (2014). A typology of technology- enhanced tourism experiences. International Journal of Tourism Research. Xiang.Z., Wang.D., O Leary. J. T., Tesenmaier, D.R. (2015). Adapting to the internet: Trends in travellers use of the web for trip planning.Journal of Travel Research. Zeng, B., Gerritsen, R. (2014). What do we know about social media in tourism? A review.Tourism Management Perspectives.

Criminal Procedure Sample Essay

Criminal Procedure Sample EssayA criminal procedure sample essay is an essay that is taken from real life cases. The purpose of this is to allow a student to see how the real law works. It will provide a better understanding of what the judge or attorney is looking for in a case. This type of essay can also be used to teach students about the law.This type of essay is also used to demonstrate the workings of the judicial system. A student should understand what is going on in a case to fully understand what the judge or attorney is looking for. Without being familiar with this type of writing, a student will not be able to fully grasp all the rules of the court.Students must understand the importance of the facts and good information when creating these type of essays. Students should make sure they gather good information before writing the paper. A good way to know if a particular source is good is to use the research tools.Good research can be done by using a research tool such as the internet. There are many sources of information. Students should find the one that is reliable and learn about the topic thoroughly. From there, they can then search for facts.The students should also consider the methods they would use in a real case. They should use the same method they would use in a court case to make their essay a successful one. Not every court uses the same method, so students should consider this. All students should understand the legal process and the way things work.All material needs to be kept accurate and not leave anything out. When writing a paper on a case, it is important to give the reader the information they need. It is not possible to give every detail in a class.A good reference is always provided to help the student understand the way a case works. The professor provides a concise way to explain something. This helps the student to understand the process better.Using a criminal procedure sample essay is a great way to educate a student a bout the law. It helps to provide the students with a specific way a case works. If a student is unsure of how something works, they should consider finding a good resource.

Current Concept And Machanisms In The Pathogenesis Of Atherosclerosis Essay Example

Current Concept And Machanisms In The Pathogenesis Of Atherosclerosis Paper Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of death and disability in the developed world. Despite our familiarity with the disease, some of its fundamental characteristics remain poorly recognized and understood. Although many generalized or systemic risk factors predispose to its development, atherosclerosis affects various regions of the circulation preferentially and yields distinct clinical manifestations depending on the particular circulatory bed affected. Atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries commonly causes myocardial infarction and angina pectoris. Atherosclerosis of the arteries supplying the central nervous system frequently provokes strokes and transient cerebral ischemia. In the peripheral circulation, atherosclerosis causes intermittent claudication and gangrene and can jeopardize limb viability. Involvement of the splanchnic circulation can cause mesenteric ischemia. Atherosclerosis can affect the kidneys either directly (e. g. , renal artery stenosis) or as a frequent site of atheroembolic disease. Even with in a given arterial bed, atherosclerosis tends to occur focally, typically in certain predisposed regions. In the coronary circulation, for example, the proximal left anterior descending coronary artery exhibits a particular predilection for developing atherosclerotic occlusive disease. Likewise atherosclerosis preferentially affects the proximal portions of the renal arteries and in the extracranial circulation to the brain, the carotid bifurcation. We will write a custom essay sample on Current Concept And Machanisms In The Pathogenesis Of Atherosclerosis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Current Concept And Machanisms In The Pathogenesis Of Atherosclerosis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Current Concept And Machanisms In The Pathogenesis Of Atherosclerosis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Indeed, atherosclerosis lesions often form at branching points of arteries, regions of disturbed blood flow. Not all manifestations of atherosclerosis result from stenotic, occlusive disease. Ectasia and development of aneurismal disease, for example, frequently occur in the aorta. The mechanisms that underlie this discontinuous anatomic distribution of atherosclerosis remain uncertain. (Rodney A. White, White A. , Ramadan Shaafi, White A. White, 1989) Atherosclerosis manifests itself focally not only in space, as just described, but in time as well. Atherogenesis in humans typically occurs over a period of many years, usually many decades. Growth of atherosclerotic plaques probably does not occur in a smooth linear fashion, but rather discontinuously, with periods of relative quiescence punctuated by periods of rapid evolution. After a generally prolonged silent period, atherosclerosis may become clinically manifest. The clinical expressions of atherosclerosis may be chronic, as in the development of stable, effort-induced angina pectoris or of predictable and reproducible intermittent claudication. Alternatively, a much more dramatic acute clinical event such as myocardial infarction, a cerebrovascular accident, or sudden cardiac death may first herald the presence of atherosclerosis. Other individuals may never experience clinical manifestations of arterial disease despite the presence of widespread atherosclerosis demonstrated post mortem. INITIATION OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS FATTY STREAK FORMATION An integrated view of experimental results in animal and study of human atherosclerosis suggests that the fatty streak represents the initial lesion of atherosclerosis. The formation of these early lesions of atherosclerosis most often seems to arise from focal increases in the content of lipo-protein within regions of the intima. These accumulations of lipoprotein particles may not result simply from an increased permeability or leakiness of the over lining endothelium. Rather this lipoprotein may collect in the intima of arteries because they bind to constituent of the extracellular matrix, increasing the residence time of the lipid- rich particles within the arterial wall. Lipoproteins that accumulate in the extra cellular space of the intima of arteries often associate with proteoglycan molecules of the arterial extracellular matrix, an interaction that may promote the retention of lipoproteins by binding them and slowing their egress from the intima. (James S. C. Gilchrist, Paramjit S. (EDT) Tappia, Thomas (EDT) Netticadan, 2003) Lipoprotein particles in the extracellular space of the intima particularly those born to matrix macromolecules, may undergo chemical modification. Accumulating evidence supports a pathogenic role for such modifications of lipoproteins in atherogenesis. Two types of such alterations in lipoproteins bear particular interest in the context of understanding how risk factors actually promote atherogenesis: oxidation and nonenzymatic glycation. Lipoprotein Oxidation Lipoprotein sequested from plasma antioxidants in the extracellular space of the intima become susceptible to oxidative modification. Oxidatively modified low density lipoprotein (LDL), rather than being defined homogerous entity, actually comprises a variable and incompletely defined mixture. Both the lipid and protein moieties of these particles cab participate in oxidative modification. Modifications of the lipids may include formation of hydroperoxides, lysophospholipids, oxysterols, and aldehydic breakdown products of fatty acids. Modifications of the apoprotein moieties may include breaks in the peptide backbone as well as derivatization of certain amino acid residues. A more recently recognized modification may result from local hypochlorous acid production by inflammatory cells within the plaques, giving rise to chlorinated species such as chlorotyrosyl moieties. Considerable evidence supports the presence of such oxidation products in atherosclerotic lesions. Nonenzymatic Glycation In diabetic patients with sustained hyperglycemia, nonenzymatic glycation of apolipoproteins and other arterial proteins likely occurs that may alter their function and propensity to accelerate atherogenesis. A good deal of experimental work suggests that both oxidatively modified and glycated lipoproteins or their constituents can contribute to many of the subsequent cellular events of lesion development. LEUKOCYTE RECRUITMENT After the accumulation of extracellular lipids, recruitment of leukocyte occurs as a second step in the formation of the fatty streak. The white blood cells types typically found in the evolving atheroma include primarily cells of the mononuclear lineage; monocytes and lymphocytes. A number of adhesion molecules or receptor for leukocyte expressed on the surface of the arterial endothelial cell likely participitate in the recruitment of leukocyte to the nascent fatty streak. Constituent of oxidatively modified LDL can augment expression of leukocyte adhesion molecule. This example of illustrate how the accumulation of lipoprotein in the arterial intima may link mechanistically with leukocyte recruitment and subsequent events in the lesion formation. (Pierre-Jean Touboul, J. R. Crouse, 1997) Laminar shear forces such as those encountered in most regions of normal artery can also suppress of the expression of leukocyte adhesion, example branch points often have disturbed laminar flow. Ordered laminar shear of normal blood flow augments the production of nitric oxide by endothelial cells. This molecule in addition to its vasodilator properties can act at the low levels constitutively produced by arterial endothelium as a local anti-inflammatory autacoid, for example limiting local adhesion molecule expression. These examples indicate how hemodynamic forces may influence the cellular that underlie atherosclerotic lesion initiation and provide a potential explanation for the local distribution of atherosclerotic lesions at certain sites predetermined by altered flow pattern. Once adherent to the surface of the surface of the arterial endothelial cell via interaction with adhesion receptors, the monocytes and lymphocytes penetrates the endothelial layer and take out residence in the intima in addition to products of modified lipoprotein, cytokines can regulate the expression of adhesion molecules involved in the leukocyte recruitment. For example, the cytokines interlukin one (IL-1) or tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) induce or augment the expression of leukocyte adhesion molecules on endothelial cells. Because modified lipoprotein can induce cytokines release from vascular wall cells, this pathway may provide an additional link between accumulation and modification of lipoprotein and leukocyte recruitment. The directed migration of leukocyte into the arterial wall may also result from the action of modified lipoprotein. For example, oxidized LDL may promote the chemotaxis of leukocyte. Also, oxidatively modified lipoprotein can elicit the production by vascular wall cells of chemoattractant cytokines such as monocytes chemoattractant protein-1. (Frank Kessel, Patricia L. Rosenfield, Norman B. Anderson, 2003) FOAM CELL FORMATION Once resident within the intima the mononuclear phagocyte differentiate into macrophages and transform into lipid-laden foam cells. The conversion of mononuclear phagocytes into foam cells requires the uptake of lipoprotein particles by receptomediated endocytosis. One might suppose that the well recognized classical receptor for LDL mediated the lipid uptake. Patients or animals lacking effective LDL receptors due to genetic alterations however have abundant arterial lesions and extraarterial xanthomata rich in macrophage derived foam cells. Also the exogenous cholesterol suppresses expression of the LDL receptor, such that under hypercholesterolemic conditions the level of this cell surface receptor for LDL decreased. Candidates for alternative receptors that can mediate lipid-loading of foam cells include a growing number of macrophage scavenger receptors, which preferentially endocytose modified lipoproteins and other receptors for oxidized LDL or beta-VLDL (very low density lipoprotein) a type of lipoprotein commonly encountered in certain hypercholerterolemic states. By ingesting lipids from the extracellular space the mononuclear phagocytes bearing such scavenger receptors may remove lipoproteins from the developing lesion. Some lipid loaded macrophages may leave the artery wall, functioning to clear lipid from the artery. Lipid accumulation and hence propensity to form atheroma, ensues if the amount of lipid entering the artery wall exceeds that exported by mononuclear phagocytes or other pathways. Macrophages may thus play a vital role in the dynamic economy of lipid accumulation in the arterial wall during atherogenesis. Some lipid laden foam cells within the expanding intimal lesion perish. Some foam cells may die as a result of programmed cell death known as apoptosis. This death of mononuclear phagocytes results in formation of the lipid rich center often called necrotic core, of more complicated atherosclerotic plaques. (Shari R. Waldstein, Merrill E Elias, 2001) Macrophages taking up modified lipoproteins much like intrinsic vascular wall cells may elaborate cytokines and growth factors that can further signal some of the cellular events in lesion complication. A number of growth factors or cytokines elaborated by mononuclear phagocytes can stimulate smooth-muscle cell proliferation and production of extracellular matrix, which accumulates in atherosclerotic plaques. Cytokines found in the plaque including IL-1 or TNF – alpha can induce local production of growth factors such as forms of platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast growth factor and others that may contribute to plaque evolution and complication. Other cytokines, notably interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) derived from activated T cells within lesions can inhibit smooth muscle proliferation and synthesis of interstitial forms of collagen. These examples illustrate how atherogenesis likely depends on a complex balance between mediators that can promote lesion formation and other pathways that can mitigate the atherogenic process. (Aron Wolfe Siegman, Timothy W. Smith, 1994) FACTORS THAT MODULATE INHIBITATION OF ATHEROMA Elaboration of small molecules by activated mononuclear phagocytes and vascular wall cells in the evolving lesion may also modulate atherogenesis. Notably reactive oxygen species can modulate growth of smooth muscle cells, activate inflammatory gene expression via the nuclear factor kappa beta (NFk beta) transcriptional control system and annihilate NO radicals, decreasing the effect of this endogenous vasodilator. However macrophage in the lesion may be activated to express the inducible form of the enzyme that can synthesize NO, known as inducible NO synthase. This high capacity form of the enzyme can produce relatively large, potentially cytotoxic amounts of No radicals. While at the low concentrations of NO produced by the constitutive NO synthase in endothelial cells, this radical may produce beneficial effects; when overproduced by activated phagocytes, however it may prove deleterious. Export by phagocytes may constitute one response to local lipid overload in the evolving lesion. Another mechanism, reverse cholesterol transport mediated by high density lipoproteins (HDL), may provide an independent pathway for lipid removal from atheroma. This transfer of cholesterol from the cell to HDL particle involves specialized cell surface molecules such as the ATP binding cassette transporter (ABCA1) (the gene mutated in tangier disease, a condition characterized by very low HDL levels) and a family of scavenger receptors (the B family). Such reverse cholesterol transport explains part of HDL’s antiatherogenic action. (Richard O. Cannon, Julio A. Panza, 1999) Although clear evidence supports lipoprotein disorder as predisposing factors for atheroma formation, other etiologies may contribute to or modulate atherogenesis. For example hypertension constitutes an independent risk factor for coronary events. Male gender and the postmenopausal state also augment the risk of developing coronary artery disease. Premenopausal women have increased HDL levels compared to age matched men. However a favorable lipoprotein pattern only partially accounts for the protection against atherosclerosis conferred by the premenopausal state. Although laboratory studies suggest that estrogens have direct beneficial effects on the arterial wall, clinical trials have not shown that estrogen replacement therapy prevents recurrent myocardial infarction in postmenopausal women. Indeed treatment with a combination of estrogen and progesterone appears to augment cardiovascular events in women with or without prior myocardial infarction. (Susan Wilansky, James T. Willerson, 2002) Diabetes mellitus aggravates atherogenesis. In addition to the well known microvascular complications of diabetes, macrovascular disease such as atherosclerosis causes a great deal of excess mortality in the diabetic population. Diabetes associated dyslipidemias strongly promote atherogenesis. In particular the constellation of insulin resistance, high triglycerides and low HDL often in association with the central adiposity and hypertension frequently seen in type 2 diabetic patients, seems to accelerate atherogenesis potently. As noted above hyperglycemia may promote the nonenzymatic glycation of LDL, LDL modified in this manner, like oxidatively modified LDL, may signal many of the initial events in atherogenesis. Triglyceriderich lipoprotein particles often elevated in poorly controlled diabetic patients also accentuate atherogenesis. Lp(a) (often pronounced lipoprotein little a to distinguish it from apolipoprotein AI and others found in HDL) provides a potential link between hemostasis and blood lipids. The Lp(a) particle consists of an apoprotein (a) molecule bound by a sulfhydryl link to the apolipoprotein B moiety of an LDL particle. Apoprotein (a) has homology with plasminogen and may inhibit fibrinolysis by competing with plasminogen. Other risk factors for atherosclerosis related to blood clotting include elevated levels of fibrinogen or of the inhibitor of fibrinolysis, plasminogen – activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1). Another nonlipid risk factor for coronary events, elevated levels of homocysteine, may act by promoting thrombosis, although the pathophysiology of this association is uncertain at present. Although individuals with marked elevations of Lp(a) or homocysteine do appear to have heightened risk of coronary thrombosis, in the population at large these factors show a much weaker correlation with vascular events than LDL, HDL, or the global inflammatory marker C-reactive protein (CRP). (Philip M. McCabe, Neil Schneiderman, Tiffany Field, A. Rodney Wellens, 2002) The relationship between tobacco use and atherosclerosis also remains poorly understood. The rapid reduction in risk for cardiac events after cessation of cigarette smoking implies that tobacco may promote thrombosis or some other determinant of plaque stability as well as contribute to the evolution of the atherosclerotic lesion itself. For example tobacco smokers have elevated fibrinogen levels a variable associated with increased atherosclerosis and acute cardiovascular events. INFLAMMATION In other situations, antecedent inflammatory states may predispose toward atherosclerosis. For example Kawasaki disease in childhood may promote developments of vascular lesions in the arteries of adults. Infectious agents continue to be proposed as instigators or potentiators of atherogenesis. However in humans atherogenic role for vital or microbial pathogens remains speculative. In some patients immune or autoimmune reactions may contribute to atherogenesis. In the particular example of the accelerated form of coronary arteriopathy that plagues heart transplant recipients, immunologic factors may contribute importantly to the pathogenesis. (James Shepherd, Sheperd and Gaw, Allan Gaw, 2001) Known monogenic defects in lipoprotein metabolism account for only a fraction of the familial risk for coronary artery disease. Thus other as yet undefined and perhaps multiple genetic factors may contribute to coronary risk. Mechanisms of disease susceptibility involving the arterial wall might account for some of the genetic predisposition to atherosclerosis unexplained by lipoprotein disorders. Application of molecular genetic techniques may identify new polymorphisms linked to coronary risk and may eventually shed light on new pathophysiologic mechanisms. For example some data suggest a link between certain alleles of the genes encoding angiotensin converting enzyme, the cytokine lymphotoxin, or PAI-1 with increased risk of myocardial infarction. Application of genomic technologies may aid identification of modifier genes that modulate individual responses to established risk factors. Large studies currently in progress should clarify these and other potential genetic factors that influence atherosclerosis. REFERENCES: Aron Wolfe Siegman, Timothy W. Smith, 1994. Anger, Hostility, and the Heart; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Frank Kessel, Patricia L. Rosenfield, Norman B. Anderson, 2003. Expanding the Boundaries of Health and Social Science: Case Studies in Interdisciplinary Innovation; Oxford University Press James Shepherd, Sheperd and Gaw, Allan Gaw, 2001. Lipids and Atherosclerosis; Taylor Francis James S. C. Gilchrist, Paramjit S. (EDT) Tappia, Thomas (EDT) Netticadan, 2003. Biochemistry of Diabetes and Atherosclerosis; Springer Philip M. McCabe, Neil Schneiderman, Tiffany Field, A. Rodney Wellens, 2002. Stress, Coping, and Cardiovascular Disease; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Pierre-Jean Touboul, J. R. Crouse, 1997. Intima-Media Thickness and Atherosclerosis: Predicting the Risk? ; Taylor Francis Richard O. Cannon, Julio A. Panza, 1999. Endothelium, Nitric Oxide, and Atherosclerosis: From Basic Mechanisms to Clinical Implications; Blackwell Publishing Rodney A. White, White A. , Ramadan Shaafi, White A. White, 1989. Atherosclerosis and Arteriosclerosis: human pathology and experimental animal methods and models; CRC Press Shari R. Waldstein, Merrill E Elias, 2001. Neuropsychology of Cardiovascular Disease; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Susan Wilansky, James T. Willerson, 2002. Heart Disease in Women; Churchill Livingstone

The Leader of South Africa essays

The Leader of South Africa essays To be a great leader there are a lot of things that one needs to possess. Having business skills along with political and civic means are some of the ways to be established as a leader. Taking control and guiding your people through trials and tribulations shows many characteristics of leading. For South Africa that leader was a man named Rolihlahla Dalibhunga Mandela also known as Nelson Mandela. Based on his life and his political attributes Mandela was a hero to a near falling country. Mandela once stated that The struggle is my life, and he was not kidding everything that he tried or did accomplish in his life took a struggle to get it done and in the right way, the Mandela way. Mandela was born in the Transkei province in Eastern Cape pf South Africa. His father Hendry Mphakanyiswa Gadca was the chief of the Mvezo. Mandela was the first member of his family to attend school while at school he was given his English name of Nelson by his teacher. At the age of 10 his father died and he then began to attend a Wesleyan mission school. At the age of 16 he began to go to Clarkebury Boarding Institute; he completed his junior certificate in 2 years instead of the 3. Around the 1940s Mandela started his BA degree at Fort Hare University where he met and became life long friends with Oliver Tambo. After being asked to leave Fort Hare for political reasons, he moves to Johannesburg where he completed his degree with the University of South Africa (UNISA), he then received his law degree at Wits University. In 1944 he helped found the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL), whose program of action was adopted by the ANC in 1949. Mandela than began to travel around the country organizing resistance. Following him founding the youth league he was suspended and during that time he created the M Plan where the ANC branches were broken down into underground cells. By 1952 Mandela and ...